In the 1970s, the American theater theorist Richard Schechner introduced the
concept of intercultural theater, marking the inception of ongoing discussions and
practical applications of this notion. Building upon an exploration of the interplay
between China and intercultural theater, this paper centers on the evolution and progression
of adaptations of Western plays into traditional Chinese opera (xiqu ), uniquely infused with Chinese characteristics. The study examines and discusses
cross-cultural theatrical works, both performed on the xiqu stage and within the ever-evolving landscape of the 21st century. Within the realm of cross-cultural theater, the adaptation of Western plays
into xiqu not only enhances the operatic stage’s diversity but also significantly impacts the
articulation of Chinese operatic narratives. This form of adaptation emerges as a
potent vehicle for conveying the Chinese perspective and adeptly narrating indigenous
stories within the context of cross-cultural communication.
[1] This paper is an interim research output from “Research and Documentation on the
Overseas Dissemination of Chinese Xiqu since the 20th Century” (Grant No. 23BB032), a General Project of Art Studies funded by the National
Social Science Fund of China.
In the 1970s, American theater theorist Richard Schechner introduced the concept
of “intercultural theater” to describe theatrical works that incorporate elements
distinct from a nation’s indigenous theatrical traditions.[1] In fact, such practices had already existed across the globe long before Schechner’s
conceptualization. Nevertheless, the introduction of “intercultural theater” sparked
extensive scholarly debate and reflection worldwide, giving rise to diverse theatrical
practices across different periods. Beginning in the late 1990s, the practice and
study of intercultural theater in Europe and America were gradually introduced into
China. By the early 21st century, distinctively Chinese “adaptations of Western theater into traditional Chinese
opera (xiqu )” had begun to take shape. Although contemporary xiqu adaptations of Western theater have transformed significantly in both connotation
and scope compared to Schechner’s original framework, a conceptual and practical overlap
remains: both “intercultural theater” and “xiqu adaptations of Western theater” center on the integration and borrowing of theatrical
elements from different cultural traditions.[2],[3] For xiqu , intercultural adaptations offer more opportunities to reach international audiences,
enabling it to receive feedback from multiple sources across diverse global cultural
contexts. This process, in turn, becomes a catalyst for xiqu’s self-reflection, creative
reinvention, and autonomous innovation.[4]
1. The Theoretical Evolution of Intercultural Theater
Since its inception, the concept of intercultural theater has evolved through
three stages. Beginning in the 1960s, Western playwrights and directors such as Peter
Brook, Ariane Mnouchkine, and Peter Sellars pioneered experimental productions drawing
upon Eastern theatrical traditions. Confronting the dual tensions between traditional
forms and modern themes, as well as between the practice and theory of theater arts,
they drew extensively from Asian, African, and Latin American theatrical elements,
incorporating Eastern performance techniques and narratives into their works. For
instance, Ariane Mnouchkine’s Shakespearean trilogy (Richard II , Twelfth Night , and Henry IV ) integrated elements and performance aesthetics from Japanese kabuki theater. Similarly, Peter Brook’s adaptation of the Indian Sanskrit epic The Mahabharata brought together actors from 16 countries across Europe, Asia, and Africa to create
a truly transcultural performance. In response to such phenomena, Schechner proposed
to replace the term “internationalism” with “interculturalism” in theatrical exchange.
He argued that “inter-nation-” connotes official affiliations and national boundaries,
failing to capture the complex dynamics of theatrical interaction in the postcolonial
era.
[1] Bharucha, Rustom. Theatre and the World: Performance and the Politics of Culture [M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993. [2] Pavis, Patrice. The Intercultural Performance Reader [M]. London: Routledge, 1996. [3] 周云龙.摹仿与跨文化戏剧研究：超越身份政治[J].文艺研究,2021(02):92-103. [4] 严程莹,李启斌.近年来跨文化戏剧研究述评[J].戏剧文学,2013(03):73-78.
It implies a politically defined framework rather than a culturally grounded conception.
Although Schechner’s concept of “intercultural theater” denies a singular
“cultural standard” to some extent and promotes an idealized theatrical vision grounded
in both respect for and inclusivity of diverse civilizations, its emergence has nevertheless
been accompanied by considerable controversy. Since the 1980s, Western academia has
debated the latent inequalities embedded in the cultural relativism within “intercultural
theater.” Rustom Bharucha pointed out that “If interculturalism is born through the
meeting of the self and the ‘other’, the real challenge is to maintain the reciprocity
of this dynamic. All too often, the self, or more precisely the ego dominates over
the ‘other’ culture, which becomes a mere extension of one’s own ethos.”[1] He contended that Western intercultural theater is underpinned by a pronounced Eurocentric
stance and constitutes a form of violence out of Orientalism. Similarly, Daphne P.
Lei employed the term “hegemonic intercultural theater” (HIT) to critique Western
directors who, in their intercultural theatrical productions, make “fragmented and
tokenized representation or even misinterpretation of traditional Asian art.”[2] She argued that such productions—large in scale, helmed by renowned directors, funded
and influenced by Western institutions or resources—distort traditional Asian arts.
The participants in these practices operated from unequal power positions, rendering
such intercultural theater a form of elitist theatrical practice.[3] It can thus be observed that the “first wave” of discourse on intercultural theater
primarily focused on the boundaries between the West and the non-West, between the
self and the Other, and on critiques of the underlying cultural conflicts and power
dynamics embedded in intercultural theater practices.
Around the turn of the 21st century, “intercultural theater” entered its second wave (spanning from the early
2000s to approximately 2010). This phase, with postcolonial theory as a key point
of departure, placed particular emphasis on the impact of cultural and economic globalization
on the practice of intercultural theater. While continuing the first wave’s inquiry
into power negotiations between individual artists and collectives as well as into
nation-state dynamics, theoretical discourse during this period focused more on the
relationship between globalization and theatrical spaces, the social value of performances
by diasporic communities, critical reflections on institutional frameworks and cultural
policies within multicultural contexts, and the global marketing and dissemination
of intercultural theater.[4] Jacqueline Lo, a key figure of this wave, argues in her article “Toward a Topography
of Cross-Cultural Theater Praxis”[1] Bharucha, Rustom. Theatre and the World: Per-formance and the Politics of Culture [M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993. [2] Lei, Daphne P. “Playful Yellowness: Rescuing Interculturalism from Millennial
Orientalism.” Interculturalism and Performance Now: New Directions? . Eds. Charlotte McIvor and Jason King. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019: 235-256. [3] 何恬.探寻“跨文化戏剧研究”的中国路径[N]. 中国社会科学报. [4] 何成洲.跨文化戏剧理论中的观看问题[J].戏剧(中央戏剧学院学报),2021(05):43-54.
that all cross-cultural theatre “inevitably entails a process of encounter and negotiation
between different cultural sensibilities.”[1] Thus, the second wave of interculturalism not only carried forward the critiques
sustained in the first wave, but also placed greater emphasis on a broader range of
participants in intercultural theater within globalized contexts. Theatrical practices
of this period focused more on ethnic minority groups within the Western world and
intercultural theater in the Third World beyond the Western sphere. Concurrently,
international arts festivals proliferated during this wave, providing more opportunities
and possibilities for the exploration of intercultural theater praxis. Spectacular
performances featuring multicultural casts emerged as a theatrical trend, becoming
one of the defining features of “intercultural theater” during this second wave.
Since 2011, intercultural theater has entered its third wave. Research during
this period has paid particular attention to the creative works, projects, and experiences
of non-Western artists—including ethnic minorities and Asian practitioners—while also
attending closely to the intercultural processes embedded in theatrical praxis. These
include, but are not limited to, actor training and rehearsal, highlighting collaboration
and diversity in theater-making.[2] This wave conceptualizes interculturalism as fluid and marginal, characterizing intercultural
theater as a bottom-up phenomenon (Interculturalism-from-below). It explores how intersecting
identity factors such as race, gender, sexuality, class, religion, and disability
shape both the expression and reception of intercultural theater.[3] For example, Wole Soyinka’s Death and the King ’s Horseman dramatizes the cultural conflict and ensuing tragedy triggered by Western
white colonizers’ so-called “humanitarian” intervention in the indigenous funeral
rites of an African kingdom. [2] Likewise, the Broadway play M. Butterfly explores a complex network of themes, including ethnicity and race, East and West,
gender and politics, identity and identification, as well as colonial and postcolonial
dynamics, through the narrative of a French diplomat’s obsession with a Chinese Peking
Opera (jingju , 京剧) performer during the Cold War—a story that demystifies gender illusion. Within
the third wave of intercultural theater, works created by non-white playwrights like
Death and the King's Horseman and M. Butterfly have multiplied and gained recognition. Theatre productions that examine the clash
of civilization and human mortality have become more common.
In summary, regardless of how the conceptualization of intercultural theater
has evolved over time, its practice across different periods has consistently involved
the integration and borrowing of diverse theatrical traditions and elements, while
also engaging with the exploration of how various identity groups influence the creation
and reception of intercultural works.
2. Intercultural Theater and China
Since the 1990s, Euro-American theories and practices of intercultural theater
have been introduced to China through the efforts of scholars with overseas academic
training [1] Lo, Jacqueline, and Helen Gilbert.“Toward a Topography of Cross-Cultural theater
Praxis.”[J]. TDR : The Drama Review 46.3 (2002): 31–53. [2] Zarrilli Phillip. Psychophysical Acting: An Intercultural Approach after Stanislavski [M]. New York: Routledge, 2009. [3] 何成洲.跨文化戏剧理论中的观看问题[J].戏剧(中央戏剧学院学报),2021(05):43-54.
or foreign language expertise. Although the term “intercultural theater” entered the
Chinese language as a theoretical concept merely three decades ago, its practices
had long existed through earlier overseas adaptations of Chinese xiqu .
Long before the emergence of Peking Opera, Chinese xiqu had already made its way to Europe through textual translation. As early as the 18th century, plays by Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) dramatists travelled overseas, such as
The Orphan of Zhao (Zhaoshi gu’er 《赵氏孤儿》) by Ji Junxiang and The Injustice to Dou E (Dou’e yuan 《窦娥冤》) by Guan Hanqing. Notably, The Orphan of Zhao, which was adapted by Voltaire into a five-act play titled L'Orphelin de la Chine (The Orphan of China , Zhongguo gu’er 《中国孤儿》), premiered in Paris in 1755. The Irish playwright Arthur Murphy's The Orphan of China, based on the translation of the original, premiered at a London theater in 1759.
Both Voltaire’s and Murphy’s adaptations elicited significant responses from their
respective audiences. While the popularity of The Orphan of Zhao in the West can be attributed to a variety of complex factors, it is undeniable that
as an intercultural theatrical work, its staging in the West—synthesizing and appropriating
elements from Chinese cultural traditions in both content and form—reflected early
Western perceptions of, and attitudes toward, Chinese cultural and artistic traditions.
Western playwrights adapted The Orphan of Zhao, across multiple dimensions and to varying degrees, in order to meet their creative
goals and the expectations of their audiences. For example, Voltaire’s adaptation
strictly adhered to the classical Western dramatic principle of the “Three Unities”
(time, place, and action), restructuring the play to follow French theatrical conventions.
Moreover, he added romantic subplots, absent in the Chinese original, and composed
the drama in five acts, consistent with his belief that tragedy should follow this
structure. These alterations were intended to align more closely with French audiences’
theatrical aesthetics.
Similarly, in the early 20th century, The Yellow Jacket (Huangmagua 《黄马褂》), co-authored by American dramatists George Cochrane Hazelton and Joseph Henry
Benrimo, premiered in New York in 1912. The play achieved great success, gaining popularity
across the United States and soon spreading worldwide. As the first Broadway production
to feature Chinese subject matter, The Yellow Jacket —often regarded as a hybrid of The Orphan of Zhao and Journey to the West —was widely praised for its pronounced theatricality and its stark contrast to American
theatrical conventions. Around the same time in Europe, the Chinese-narrative English-language
play Lady Precious Stream (Wang Baochuan 《王宝川》) written by Xiong Shiyi achieved tremendous success in Britain. During its 1935
production at the Little Theatre in London, the play enjoyed a six-month sold-out
run. Its impact extended beyond the stage, as it was later selected for the British
middle school curriculum[1] .
Therefore, it is evident that the overseas adaptation of Chinese xiqu has a long-standing history, with substantial intercultural theatrical practices
emerging across various periods and regions, [1] 朱伟明.英国学者杜为廉教授访谈录[J].文学遗产，2005(03):138-143.
exerting a sustained influence on the Western theater world. Beyond these adaptations,
another dimension of China’s engagement with intercultural theater lies in the influence
of Western theatrical practices on Chinese opera, encompassing, but not limited to,
stage performance and the development of theoretical frameworks.
Taking the development of Peking Opera as an example, one can observe the
traces of its intercultural theatrical exchange and the influence on its performance
modes at various stages of its evolution. In the early 20th century, with the influx of Western spoken drama, the performance modalities and
stage architectures of Peking Opera were among the first aspects to be impacted. During
the 1920s in Shanghai, serial plays (liantai benxi 连台本戏) featuring machine-operated scenery (jiguan bujing 机关布景) began to appear frequently on the xiqu stage. These machine-operated scenery plays prospering in Shanghai, along with the
ancient-costume (guzhuang 古装) song-and-dance (gewu 歌舞) dramas represented by Mei Lanfang, both exhibited distinctly intercultural characteristics.
As Peking Opera scholar Zhang Weipin observes: “Both Mei Lanfang’s experiments and
Shanghai’s machine-operated scenery plays fundamentally subverted the traditional
stage aesthetics of xiqu . While paying attention to the technical and artistic aspects of stage design in
theatrical presentation, machine-operated scenery plays prioritize narrative over
song-and-dance, whereas ancient-costume dramas submerged storytelling within choreography—both
challenged the paradigm of ‘storytelling through song and dance’ that traditionally
characterizes Chinese xiqu ”.[1]
At the same time, machine-operated scenery plays also transformed spatiotemporal
concepts within xiqu performance, shifting the conception from subjective to objective, and thereby inevitably
influencing the conventional paradigms of scriptwriting in xiqu . Moreover, the realistic stage settings created a tension with the inherent virtuality
of traditional xiqu movements, necessitating adjustments in the staging of certain plot elements. Although
the reforms of xiqu in the 20th century, spearheaded by Peking Opera, were, an inevitable product of their era. And
Mei Lanfang ultimately abandoned machine-operated scenery plays following several
unsuccessful attempts. Nontheless these innovative endeavors reflect the impact of
intercultural theatrical exchange on the indigenous art of xiqu .
Beyond its impact on the dimension of stage presentation, including mechanical
scenery and performance scripts, Western theater also exerted significant influence
on the theoretical discourse and educational practices of Chinese xiqu . As Western spoken drama gradually gained prominence on the Chinese stage, one important
aspect of xiqu education and theory during the Republican era (1912-1949) was the operatic modernization
of traditional xiqu . During the May Fourth Movement, Ouyang Yuqian pioneered the integration of Western
operatic musical forms into the pedagogical framework of xiqu education.[2] In his article “How to Accomplish Our Theatrical Movement,” Ouyang Yuqian analyzed
Chinese theater from multiple dimensions—including script, theater architecture, actors,
stage design, and music—drawing systematic comparisons between xiqu and Western opera. He proposed operatizing xiqu through musical transformation, thereby creating a “new opera” (xin geju 新歌剧) that integrated Western vocal and instrumental techniques into xiqu .[3] By contrast, Wang Bosheng argued that traditional xiqu —referred to as “national theater” (guoju 国剧)—should serve as the foundation for reform, upon which selective integration of
stage presentation techniques from Western spoken drama and opera could give rise
to a new form of Chinese opera, the so-called
[1] 张伟品.20世纪京剧走向与西方文化影响[J].戏剧艺术,2016(01):16-25+35. [2] 欧阳予倩《戏剧改革之理论与实际》，原载1929年5月广东戏剧研宄所《戏剧》第１卷第１期，《欧阳予情全集》（第四卷），上海：上海文艺出版社，1990年，第55-77页。 [3] 欧阳予倩《怎样完成我们的戏剧运动》，原载1929年４月８日广州《民国日报》，《欧阳予倩全集》（第四卷），上海：上海文艺出版社，1990年，第２页。
“new opera.” Both Ouyang Yuqian and Wang Bosheng, pioneers of modern Chinese theater,
were deeply influenced by Western spoken drama yet remained committed to the revitalization
of traditional xiqu . As intellectuals in the May Fourth New Culture movement, they actively promoted
xiqu reform and, under the influence of Western theatrical traditions, established several
educational institutions aimed at cultivating a new generation of xiqu performers.
Overall, in the context of intercultural theater in modern and contemporary
China, although theoretical discourse has somewhat lagged behind developments in Western
academia, practices aligned with the notion of “intercultural theater” have long existed
and have permeated various aspects of xiqu . Practitioners of xiqu have neither rigidly adhered to tradition nor indiscriminately adopted foreign forms;
rather, they have produced a continuous stream of works that reflect both modernity
and intercultural characteristics. Through ongoing experimentation and trial-and-error,
they have actively contributed to the presentation and development of intercultural
theater on the Chinese stage.
3 Xiqu Adaptation of Western Theater in China’s Intercultural Theater Practice Since the
21st Century
Sun Huizhu conceptualizes intercultural theater as a three-phase process:
the first centers on interculturalism in content, the second on form, and the third
on the integration of both. Within this framework, the adaptation of Western dramatic
classics into xiqu has remained a distinctive and integral strand of Chinese intercultural theater,
consistently present across all three phases.
According to statistics, by 2022, the number of intercultural xiqu adaptations using Peking Opera as their primary medium had reached 134. Intercultural
theater has thus become an indispensable presence in the contemporary Chinese xiqu performance market. Since the adaptation of Western theatrical classics into xiqu constitutes a form of intercultural theater, the process inevitably involves the
borrowing and representation of distinct theatrical traditions embedded in the source
texts. Consequently, two critical issues arise for 21st -century xiqu adaptations of Western classics: first, how to select and integrate cultural elements
and symbols from foreign contexts so that we are not merely scratching the surface,
presenting Western drama in Chinese costume; and second, how to effectively articulate
the implications embedded in such adaptations.
The early 21st century witnessed a distinctive trend in xiqu adaptations that emphasized the amplified use of external theatrical techniques and
favored Western dramatic works with intricate plots, well-defined characters, and
romantic-ethical themes. A paradigmatic case is the 2006 Yue Opera (Yueju 越剧) Aspiration Sky High (Xin bi tian gao , 《心比天高》), adapted from Henrik Ibsen’s Hedda Gabler . In this production, performer Zhou Yujun relied almost exclusively on the fundamental
techniques of xiqu to portray a passionate woman gradually consumed by her desires and ultimately driven
to moral collapse. These techniques include bodily movements (shenduan , 身段, a codified system of gestures, poses, movements, and stances to portray characters,
narrative situations, and emotional states), water sleeves (shuixiu , 水袖, a stylized technique involving the manipulation of long, flowing silk extensions
attached to the sleeves of the costume to enhance gesture, rhythm, and emotional expression),
and eye expressions. In the climactic scene where Hedda burned the manuscript, the
codified water-sleeve dance was employed to convey her inner turmoil, rage, and profound
disillusionment with Lovborg. While such productions exaggerated and transformed the
fundamental conventions (chengshi 程式) of Yue Opera, presenting cross-cultural narratives through a renewed performative
expression, challenges often arose at the level of the script, where complex themes
and characters risk being oversimplified or flattened. Another hallmark of xiqu adaptations
during this period was the transposition of temporal and spatial settings. This strategy
sought to liberate the plot from the constraints of locality, environment, and historical
specificity during the process of adaptation, aligning it with the national and historical
essence of the original text, while also adjusting narrative time and space to enhance
audience comprehension. In Aspiration Sky High , for instance, to better present the story and reduce the audience’s sense of estrangement
from a foreign narrative, the setting was relocated to China’s Warring States period
(475-221 BCE), the era of the “Hundred Schools of Thought.” Such adjustments in narrative
setting and presentation helped bridge cultural gaps and make the adaptation more
accessible to local audiences.
Through experimentation and practice in the early 21st century, the conceptual framework of intercultural xiqu adaptation has gradually evolved from the simple transplantation of Western classics
to a more refined process centered on selecting and adapting universal archetypal
elements. This approach, exemplified by the 2016 Yu Opera (yuju 豫剧) production of August Strindberg’s Miss Julie , builds upon archetypal characters shared across both Eastern and Western traditions.
By strategically redesigning plots and re-configuring contexts in the classic text,
it achieves an organic synthesis of narrative and character, resulting in a deeply
integrated storytelling[1] . While localizing and xiqu -izing this canonical play, Miss Julie not only reproduces Strindberg’s critical engagement with issues of class and gender
in the late 19th century, but also explores new avenues of characterization through xiqu -specific dance and stylized bodily movement. The adaptation presents a thoroughly
“Chinese” narrative derived from a Western original, achieved through the meticulous
reconstruction of character names, temporal-spatial settings, and plot structures.
In its portrayal of Miss Julie and Gui Sidi (the female servant Kristin), the opera
further intensifies the evolving master-servant dynamic, foreshadowing the servant’s
transgressive behaviors through xiqu -specific songs and dances, thereby heightening the underlying class and identity
conflicts between characters. As a result, such adaptations differ from earlier uncritical
reproductions of Western originals. While retaining the essential narrative framework
and core characters, they Sinicize and xiqu -ize elements such as temporal-spatial settings, characters’ identity and personality,
and basic dramatic conflict in the process of transplantation. In doing so, they align
more closely with xiqu ’s intrinsic creative principles and audience expectations, thereby enhancing audience
receptivity.
Beyond adapting established Western theatrical classics, a defining feature
of this era is the use of xiqu to reinterpret Western historical figures, exploring and portraying the shared complexities
of human nature across temporal and cultural boundaries. A notable example is the
experimental Peking Opera monodrama Napoleon, collaboratively created in 2016 by graduate
students from various departments at the National Academy of Chinese Theater Arts
(NACTA). This work reinterpreted Napoleon through the medium of Peking Opera, bringing
a Western historical figure onto the Eastern stage using the distinctive expressive
techniques of xiqu . The production ingeniously employs facial makeup (lianpu 脸谱) to convey Napoleon’s personality traits and life trajectory, integrates the precise
and structured language of classical literary Chinese throughout both singing (chang 唱) and speaking (nian 念), and fully utilizes xiqu ’s stylized conventions to evoke reality out of minimal props. Since Napoleon once
declared that he fought for France, [1] 钟鸣.现在与未来：跨文化戏曲改编中的伦理审美[J].艺术百家,2023,39(02):95-100+113.
red—symbolizing loyalty and valor—was chosen as the dominant color of his facial makeup,
echoing the primary color used in the facial representation of Zhao Kuangyin, the
founding emperor of the Song dynasty. Additionally, Napoleon’s makeup incorporates
stylize transformations of Chinese characters in the seal-script form. The character
“di” (帝, meaning “emperor”) bifurcates as eyebrows. The character “dian” (典, meaning
"code or law") adorns the nasal bridge, mimicking age wrinkles and alluding to Napoleon’s
legacy of legal codification—the Napoleonic Code. Furthermore, to reflect his military
prowess and ruthless autocracy, the area between the corners of his eyes and eyebrow
tails, nasolabial holds are peppered with shades of yellow and gray, aligning with
xiqu ’s facial color symbolism, where yellow signifies ferocity and gray denotes greed.
Together, these elements compose a vivid and expressive two-sectioned face (liangtang lian , 两膛脸, a dualistic symmetrical facial makeup design). Such intercultural theater centers
on the shared complexities of human nature, universal spiritual states, and the legendary
aesthetic spirit intrinsic to both Western drama and Chinese xiqu . By deconstructing and reconfiguring the original texts, these productions thoughtfully
integrate the distinctive features of xiqu , including its role-based performance system (hangdang 行当), to create innovative reinterpretations and representations. In doing so, they
expand the expressive repertoire and diversify the role categories of Chinese xiqu .
In the current new era, intercultural adaptations of xiqu have increasingly focused on using Chinese operatic forms to effectively communicate
China’s stories to global audiences. By staging xiqu productions that embody cross-cultural interactions, these works aim to shape a “credible,
lovable, and respectable image of China” and to demonstrate the inherent inclusiveness
of Chinese culture in seeking common ground while preserving differences. Following
earlier phases of content adaptation and formal transplantation, xiqu adaptations in this stage have placed greater emphasis on using traditional operatic
forms to retell stories familiar to international audiences. This shift marks an evolution
from primarily formal conversion to a dual emphasis on both form and content—recasting
foreign classics as Chinese narratives while conveying universal values and significance
through stage representations. Such adaptations stand as vivid testaments to the notion
of a shared human future and the interconnectedness of human nature.[1] A representative example of this approach is the 2021 “One Script, Two Operas” project
by the National Academy of Chinese theater Arts, which featured two versions of King Oedipus : one in Pu Opera (puju 蒲剧, also termed as Puzhou Bangzi Opera), and the other in Yu Opera. While Sun Huizhu’s
earlier Peking Opera production of King Oedipus (starring Weng Guosheng) consciously aligned xiqu aesthetics with Western tragic ethos by downplaying Oedipus’ confrontation with fate
and reconfiguring the image of the tragic hero, the Pu and Yu Opera versions shift
focus. These productions reshape and expand the portrayal of female characters, emphasize
spatiotemporal transformations on stage and explore innovative performative formats
for xiqu at little theaters (xiaojuchang , 小剧场). They exemplify how third-wave intercultural theater theory can inspire new
perspectives and strategies for presenting xiqu . Increasingly, attention is being devoted to the discourse and depiction of female
characters on the xiqu stage.
In addition to the intercultural adaptations of ancient Greek tragedy, this
period has also witnessed a proliferation of xiqu adaptations of Western literary classics. One notable example is the 2023 Peking
Opera production of The Miser for little theaters, co-produced by the National Academy of Chinese Theater Arts
and the Jingju Theatre Company of Beijing. This production localizes and stylizes
Molière’s original into Peking Opera in terms of characterization, narrative structure,
and other performative elements. First, the characters were renamed in the adaptation
and more scenes were added to depict interactions between Gong Laoye (the miser Harpagon)
and his family. Family dynamics in the revised storyline influence character development,
in contrast to the more stereotypical portrayals of secondary characters in the original
play. [2] [1] 钟海清.跨文化之旅：西方戏剧的戏曲改编[J].上海戏剧,2023(02):36-39.
Moreover, the adaptation incorporates more quotidian scenes—for example, using the
“abacus dance,” a codified xiqu choreography with the abacus as a prop, to highlight the comedic haggling between
Gong Laoye and his son, Gong Shaoye.
Thus, in light of the four modes summarized by Qi Shouhua, earlier adaptations
of Western classics on the Chinese stage primarily aligned with the first mode (fidelity)
and the second mode (indigenization). Since the advent of the new era, intercultural
xiqu adaptations have entered the third mode (hybridization) and the fourth mode (experimentation).
These newer works actively blend diverse theatrical traditions, create new culturally
significant theatric events, and undertake multidimensional experiments in narrative,
structure, production, and more.[1] One prominent example is Macbeth , one of Shakespeare’s four great tragedies and among the most widely circulated works
in China. Over the past four decades, Macbeth has been continually adapted for the xiqu stage—from The Kingdom of Desire (Yuwang chengguo 《欲望城国》) by Taiwan Contemporary Legend Theater in 1986 to the experimental xiqu piece Who Is Macbeth (Shui shi maikebai 《谁是麦克白》) in 2022, igniting a wave of reinterpretations across multiple operatic genres.
These adaptations include the Kun Opera (kunqu 昆曲) production Blood-Stained Hands (1986) (Xue shou ji 《血手记》), the Peking Opera King of Troubled Times (1987) (Luan shi wang 《乱世王》), the Wu Opera (wuju 婺剧) Bloody Sword (1997) (Xue jian 《血剑》), the Sichuan Opera (chuanju 川剧) Mrs./Lady Macbeth (1999) (Makebai furen 《马克白夫人》), the Yue Opera General Ma Long (2001) (Malong jiangjun 《马龙将军》), the Cantonese Opera (yueju 粤剧) A Betraying Hero (2004) (Yingxiong panguo 《英雄叛国》), the Hui Opera (huiju 徽剧) The Psycho (2013) (Jinghun ji 《惊魂记》), the Wu Opera Desire, Blood and Shocked Spirit (2016) (Yuxue jinghun 《欲血惊魂》), the experimental Kunqu The Wife (2016) (Fu de ren 《夫的人》), and Who Is Macbeth (2022) (Shui shi maikebai 《谁是麦克白》). Among these works, the Wu Opera Desire, Blood and Shocked Spirit is an upgraded version of Bloody Sword , while Hui Opera The Psycho builds on the adaptation first developed in Yue Opera General Ma Long .
These adaptations have evolved from the wholesale adoption of original content
to the recreation of Western stories through traditional Chinese aesthetics, presented
as a xiqu production. This evolution has now reached a phase in which Western dramatic plots
and forms are absorbed, while their literary, philosophical, and spectatorial dimensions
are transmuted into material compatible with xiqu ’s expressive systems—thus reinterpreting them as “Chinese stories.” For example,
the Wu Opera Desire, Blood and Shocked Spirit does not rely entirely on the original narrative to portray Macbeth as an ambitious
usurper consumed by his desire for power. Instead, by distilling and dramatizing the
theme of the hero’s self-destruction, the opera offers a reflection on human nature
and a moral critique via Chinese ethical lenses, reconstructing Macbeth as a tragic
figure with strong didactic implications. The 2022 experimental xiqu production Who Is Macbeth innovates by incorporating time travel as a plot device that interweaves Macbeth
with historical Chinese figures like the Zhao Guangyi (939-997, the second emperor
of the Song Dynasty) and Gongsun Zidu (an aristocrat in the early Spring and Autumn
Period, circa 8th century BCE). By extracting “power-lust” as the central cultural
motif, the production demonstrates how Eastern and Western figures exhibit divergent
yet parallel responses to desire. While retaining the narrative framework of Macbeth , the play ultimately tells a story imbued with Chinese cultural significance, achieving
a dynamic convergence of East and West.
[1] Qi Shouhua, Adapting Western Classics for the Chinese Stage , London and New York: Routledge, 2019, pp.68-69.
It is an undisputed fact that Chinese xiqu and Western theater differ significantly in both conception and form. Therefore,
when it comes to preserving the narratives and spirit of Western classics, whether
such practices may be viewed as cultural appropriation or displacement, the extraction,
selection, and re-representation of core elements are of critical importance. The
aforementioned intercultural xiqu adaptations in China encompass considerations such as directors, performers, script/text,
and performance among other factors. Some even draw on Western theoretical frameworks,
such as globalization theory and gender studies for discussions/interpretations and
inspirations on plot design. This practice not only enriches the characters in xiqu , but also offers new possibilities for the portrayal and interpretation of the pre-existing
figures in Western classics.
4. Conclusion
Intercultural theater in China possesses a rich historical foundation and
encompasses a broad scope of practical engagement. As an important branch, the adaptation
of Western drama into xiqu has seen increasing activity in the 21st century. These adaptations have become more diverse in terms of content and form,
focusing on identifying shared elements in both East and West and creatively applying
traditional xiqu conventions. In fact, the adaptation of Western drama into xiqu can, to some extent, be regarded as the modernization process of xiqu itself. These adaptations have introduced new characters and roles, and brought in
fresh stories and plots, expanding the boundaries of the traditional xiqu stage. Most importantly, intercultural theater has enhanced the visibility and international
reception of xiqu in cultural and artistic exchanges, allowing global audiences to understand what
makes xiqu a quintessential Chinese art form. More importantly, the world witnesses Chinese
xiqu an ancient art form to engage with other world classics in intercultural theater.
We can therefore tell better Chinese stories, disseminating the Chinese voice to the
world.
← Return to Table of Contents ←